The Sociological Theories We Studied This Week Can Be Broken Into Three Families.

Learning Outcomes:

At the finish of this chapter you volition exist able to practice the following.

Explain the major assumptions of each of the theoretical perspectives.

Compare and contrast the iii major theoretical perspectives.

Utilise theory to issues of the family unit.

M AKING Due south ENSE OF A BSTRACT T HEORIES

Sociological theories are the core and underlying strength of the discipline. They guide researchers in their studies; they too guide practitioners in their intervention strategies. And they will provide you with a basic agreement of how to see the larger social picture show in your own personal life. A theory is a set of interrelated concepts used to depict, explain, and predict how gild and its parts are related to each other. Let'southward employ binoculars every bit a metaphor to illustrate the usefulness of a theory. Binoculars serve to magnify, enlarge, clarify, and expand our view of the thing we are looking at. Unlike binoculars, y'all can't see or touch a theory, but it is a framework to assist you "come across" the earth sociologically. Some things you want to look at need 20×80 force binoculars while you might come across other things meliorate with 8×forty or 10×30 lenses. It's the aforementioned with society. Some things demand the lens of Disharmonize Theory, while others need a Structural Functional or Symbolic Interactionist lens. Some social phenomena can exist viewed using each of the three frameworks, although each volition give you a slightly different view of the topic under investigation.

Theories are sets of interrelated concepts and ideas that have been scientifically tested and combined to magnify, enlarge, clarify, and aggrandize our agreement of people, their behaviors, and their societies. Without theories, science would exist a futile practise in statistics. In the diagram below you tin can run across the process by which a theory leads sociologists to perform a sure type of report with sure types of questions that can test the assumptions of the theory. In one case the written report is administered, the findings and generalizations can exist considered to encounter if they support the theory. If they do, similar studies volition be performed to repeat and fine-melody the process. If the findings and generalizations do non support the theory, the sociologist rethinks and revisits the assumptions s/he fabricated.

Here's a real-life scientific example: In the 1960s ii researchers named Cumming and Henry studied the processes of crumbling. They devised a theory on aging that had assumptions congenital into information technology. These were, just put, that all elderly people realize the inevitability of death and begin to systematically disengage from their previous youthful roles while at the same time society prepares to disengage from them.¹ Cumming and Henry tested their theory on a large number of elderly persons. Findings and generalization consistently yielded a "no" in terms of support for this theory. For all intents and purposes this theory was abandoned and is but used in references such as these. Theories have to exist supported by research and they besides provide a framework for how specific research should be conducted.

Theories tin can exist used to study society–millions of people in a state, state, or fifty-fifty at the globe level. When theories are used at this level they are referred to as macro theories , theories which best fit the study of massive numbers of people (typically Disharmonize and Functional theories). When theories are used to study modest groups or individuals, say a couple, family, or squad, they are referred to as being micro theories , theories which best fit the written report of small groups and their members (typically Symbolic Interactionism). In many cases, any of the three chief theories tin can be applied at either the macro or micro levels.

Let'southward consider the three major theoretical perspectives one at a time.

C ONFLICT T HEORY

The Conflict Theory is a macro theory designed to study the larger social, global, and societal level of sociological phenomena. This theory was founded by Karl Marx. Marx was a witness to oppression perpetrated by society'south aristocracy members confronting the masses of poor. He had very lilliputian patience for the capitalistic ideals that undergirded these powerful acts of inhumane exploitation of the average person. Later on Max Weber farther developed this sociological theory and refined it to a more moderate position. Weber studied capitalism further just argued against Marx's outright rejection of it.

Disharmonize theory is specially useful in understanding: war, wealth and poverty, the "haves" and the "take-nots," revolutions, political strife, exploitation, divorce, ghettos, discrimination and prejudice, domestic violence, rape, child corruption, slavery, and more disharmonize-related social phenomena. Disharmonize Theory claims that gild is in a country of perpetual conflict and contest for limited resource. Marx and Weber, were they alive today, would likely use Disharmonize Theory to written report the unprecedented bail outs by the U.S. government which have proven to be a rich-to-rich wealth transfer or to help guide the caption of private wellness care companies benefiting from illness and poverty.

Conflict Theory assumes that those who "have" perpetually try to increase their wealth at the expense and suffering of those who "have-not." It is a power struggle which is about oftentimes won by the wealthy elite and lost by the common person of common means. Those who "have" are those who possess power. Ability is the ability to go what one wants even in the presence of opposition. When power is institutionalized, we phone call information technology authority. Authority is institutionalized, legitimate power. By institutionalized we mean making something (for example a concept, a social role, particular values and norms, or modes of behavior) go embedded within an organization, social arrangement, or society as an established custom or norm within that system. ²

By far the "haves," in Marx's terms, the bourgeoisie or wealthy elite are the purple, political, and corporate leaders, accept the most power. The bourgeoisie are the Goliaths in guild who often bang-up their wishes into outcomes. The "have-nots" or Marx's proletariat are the common working class, lower class, and poor members of society. Co-ordinate to Marx (see diagram beneath) the Suburbia and Proletariat cannot both have it their way and in club to offset the wealth and ability of the Bourgeoisie the proletariat often rise upwards and revolt against their oppressors (The French, Bolshevik, United states of america, Mexican, and other revolutions are examples).

Figure 1. Photo Montage of Haves and Have Nots in a U.South. Neighborhood. ^three

Marx and Weber realized that societies have different social classes and a similar pattern of relatively few rich persons in comparison to the majority who are poor. The rich telephone call the shots. Wait below at the photographic montage in Effigy 1 of homes in one U.S. neighborhood which were run downwards, poor, trashy, and worth very little. They were on the w side of a gully and frustrated many who lived on the e side who were forced to drive through these slums to reach their own mansions.

The Conflict Theory has been repeatedly tested against scientifically derived data and information technology repeatedly proves to have a broad awarding amidst many unlike levels of sociological study. That is not to say that all sociological phenomena are conflict-based. But, most Disharmonize theorists would fence that more than often than not Conflict assumptions do apply.

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM THEORY

The Functionalist Theory claims that club is in a state of residuum and kept that way through the office of club's component parts. Order can be studied the same style the human trunk can exist studied: by analyzing what specific systems are working or not working, diagnosing problems, and devising solutions to restore residuum. Socialization, religious interest, friendship, wellness intendance, economic recovery, peace, justice and injustice, population growth or reject, customs, romantic relationships, marriage and divorce, and normal and aberrant family experiences are just a few of the evidences of functional processes in our society.

Functionalists would agree with Disharmonize Theorists that things break down in society and that unfair treatment of others is common. These break downs are called dysfunctions, which are breakdowns or disruptions in society and its parts that threaten social stability.

Enron'due south plummet, the ruination of xiv,000 employees' retirement funds, the loss of millions in shareholder investments, and the serious doubtfulness it left in the listen of U.S. investors about the stock market'south credibility and reliability which lasted for almost a decade are examples of dysfunctions in the economic sector of the economy. Functionalists also look at ii types of functions, manifest and latent functions. Manifest functions are the apparent and intended functions of institutions in society while latent functions are the less apparent, unintended, and often unrecognized functions in social institutions and processes.

Back to Enron, the government's manifest function includes regulation of investment rules and laws in the stock market to ensure credibility and reliability. After the Enron plummet, every visitor offering stocks for trade underwent a government supervised audit of its accounting processes in gild to restore the public trust. For the about part balance was restored in the stock market (to a certain degree at least). There are still many imbalances in the investment, mortgage, and cyberbanking sectors which have to be readjusted; but, that's the point-lodge readjusts and eventually recovers.

Does the regime likewise provide latent or accidental functions to guild? Yep. Accept for example U.S. military bases. Of all the currently open U.S. military bases, all are economic boons for the local communities surrounding them. All provide jobs, taxes, tourism, retail, and government contract monies that would otherwise become somewhere else. When the discussion about endmost military bases comes up in Washington DC, Senators and members of Congress go to work trying to keep their customs'southward bases open.

As you can already tell, Functionalism is more than positive and optimistic than Conflict Theory. Functionalists realize that just similar the body, societies become "sick" or dysfunction. Past studying society's parts and processes, Functionalists can better sympathise how lodge remains stable or arrange to destabilizing forces when unwanted change is threatened. According to this theory nearly societies find that salubrious balance and maintain it; if they don't so they collapse as many have in the history of the globe. Equilibrium is the state of residue maintained by social processes that help club adjust and compensate for forces that might tilt information technology onto a path of devastation. Thinking back to the Disharmonize example of the gully separating extremely wealthy and poor neighborhoods, await at the Habitat for Humanity picture in Figure 2. Functional Theorists would say that component parts of society respond to dysfunctions in ways that help to resolve problems. In this business firm the foundation was dug, poured, and dried within a week. From the foundation to this signal was three working days. This house is now finished and lived in, thank you more often than not to the Habitat non-turn a profit procedure and the work of many volunteers. Lots of homeless people are a dysfunction for society; remember most what would happen if half of club was homeless for example. And then some other office of lodge, the normative arrangement of Habitat for Humanity, steps in and makes adjustments; they buy lots, get donations and volunteers and build homes helping to bring club back into equilibrium.

S YMBOLIC I NTERACTIONISM T HEORY

Symbolic Interactionism claims that society is composed of ever-present interactions amongst individuals who share symbols and their meanings. This is a very useful theory for understanding other people, improving advice, and in understanding cross-cultural relations. Values, communication, witch-hunting, crisis management, fearfulness from crime, fads, love, evil and sin, what'southward hot and what's not, alien abduction behavior, "who I am," litigation, mate selection, arbitration, dating joys and woes, and both personal and national meanings and definitions can all exist better understood using Symbolic Interactionism.

In one case you realize that individuals are, past their social natures, very symbolic with 1 another, then you begin to empathise how to persuade your friends and family, how to

empathise others' points of view, and how to resolve misunderstandings. This theory is interested in meanings. Think most these three words, Beloved, LUST, and LARD. Each letter of the alphabet is a symbol. When combined in a specific gild, each word tin exist defined. Because we memorize words and their meanings we know that in that location is a striking divergence betwixt Love and Animalism. Nosotros besides know that LARD has cypher to do with either of the other two terms. Contrast these word pairs detest versus hope, help versus hurt, advise versus abuse, and connect versus corrupt. These words, similar many others carry immense pregnant and when juxtaposed sound like the starting time of philosophical ideas.

Figure 2. Photograph of a Habitat for Humanity Home. ^iv

Symbolic Interactionism makes it possible for you to exist a college pupil. It makes it so you sympathize your professors' expectations and know how to footstep up to them. Our daily interactions are filled with symbols and an ongoing process of interactions with other people based on the meanings of these symbols. Have you ever had anyone you've greeted actually answer your question of "How are you?" Most of us never have. It'south a greeting, not a question in the U.S. culture and a Symbolic Interactionist would exist interested in how it changed from a question to a greeting.

Symbolic Interactionism helps you to know what the expectations of your roles are and if you perceive yourself as doing a practiced job or not in meeting those expectations. TheThomas Theorem is often called the "definition of the situation." It says that if people perceive or define something every bit being real, then it becomes real in its consequences. An example of this is a woman who was diagnosed as HIV positive. She made her funeral plans, made certain her children would exist cared for and then prepared to dice. Two-years after she was retested. It turned out her commencement test results were a faux positive, yet she acted as though she had AIDS and was certainly going to die presently from it. She inverse how she saw her remaining days. In a hypothetical example, a famous athlete (you pick the sport) defines himself as invincible and too famous to exist held legally answerable for his criminal behavior. He is subsequently found guilty for a crime. A hypothetical politician (you pick the party and level of governance) believes that his/her constituents volition tolerate anything and so he/she engages in morally undesirable beliefs. The indicate is that when we define our situation as being real, we human activity as though it is real (regardless of the objective facts in the affair).

One of the major realizations that comes with Symbolic Interactionism is that y'all begin to understand the other people in your life and come to know that they are neither right nor wrong, just of a dissimilar point of view. They define social symbols with varying meanings. To sympathise the other person'due south symbols and meanings is to approach a common ground. Listen to this statement past Rosa Parks (1913-2005), "All I was doing was trying to get home from work." In 1955 when she refused to surrender her seat on the autobus to a White person, it proved to be a spark for the Ceremonious Rights Move that involved the leadership of Martin Luther King Jr. and many other notable leaders. It was Rosa Parks' simple and honest argument that fabricated her human action of disobedience so meaningful. The king of beasts'southward share of the nation was collectively tired and sick of the mistreatment of Blacks. Many Whites joined the protests while others quietly sympathized. After all that was written in the history books virtually it, a elementary still symbolic gesture past Rosa Parks started the healing process for the U.s.. Tabular array 1 provides a quick reference for comparison the three major sociological perspectives.

T HEORIES D EVELOPED FOR U NDERSTANDING THE F AMILY

Over the years researchers have constitute the necessity to develop theories of behavior that are specific to family settings. These theories have been developed by people with a multifariousness of areas of emphasis, from family therapists to gerontologists to child development specialists. In this chapter we will briefly discuss six such theories: Family Systems, Family Developmental, Life Course, Social Commutation, Ecological, and Feminist.

F AMILY S YSTEMS T HEORY

When understanding the family, the Family Systems Theory has proven to exist very powerful. Family Systems Theory claims that the family is understood best by conceptualizing information technology equally a complex, dynamic, and irresolute drove of parts, subsystems and family members. Much similar a mechanic would interface with the computer system of a cleaved down car to diagnose which systems are cleaved (manual, electric, fuel, etc.) to repair it, a therapist or researcher would interact with family members to diagnose how and where the systems of the family are in demand of repair or intervention. Family Systems Theory comes nether the Functional Theory umbrella and shares the functional approach of because the dysfunctions and functions of complex groups and organizations. To fully understand what is meant by systems and subsystems look at Figure three which depicts Juan and Maria's extended family unit system.

Table one. Comparison the 3 Major Sociological Theories.5
	Disharmonize	Structural Functionalism	Symbolic Interactionism
	Macro	Macro	Micro
	Inequality lies at the cadre	Uses biological model	Society is an ongoing
	of society which leads to	(social club is similar a living	process of many social
	conflict	organism)	interactions
	Resources are limited	Lodge has interrelated	Interactions based on
	Power is non evenly	parts	symbolic context in which
	distributed	What are functions or	they occur
	Contest is inevitable	dysfunctions of parts	Subjective perceptions are
	(winners & losers)	Club finds balance and is	critical to how symbols are
	Negotiations based on	stable	interpreted
	influence, threats,	Equilibrium	Communications
	promises, and consensus	Society adjusts to maintain	Meanings
	Threats and coercion	balance	Roles
	Any resource tin can be used	How are parts integrated	Self
	as tool of power or	Manifest functions	Reality shaping in cocky and
	exploitation	Latent functions and	with others
	War is natural	dysfunctions	Social construction of reality
	Haves and have nots		Thomas Theorem
	Privileges are protected		Definition of situation
	past haves
	Guild is challenged past
	have nots

Figure three. Juan and Maria'southward Extended Family System.

Juan and Maria are a middle-aged couple. Juan is a professor who lives with his parents, his married woman's widowed mother, his two children Anna and José, Anna's husband Alma and the three-calendar month erstwhile triplets Anna just delivered. Observe that Maria's begetter has passed away, and then he has an Ten over his place in this diagram. Considering Juan is financially established, he tin can support the large extended family. This represents a 4-generation complex family system. There are three couples living inside this home, Juan and Maria, Grandpa and Grandma, and Alma and Anna. Only at that place are various levels of strain felt by each couple.

Today multi-generational family systems are becoming more mutual, but are typically three generations where the married developed child and his or her spouse and children motion back domicile. Juan and Maria raised their 2 children Anna and José with tremendous support from grandparents. Maria'southward mother was a higher graduate and has been a large help to José who is a sophomore in higher and a basketball squad member. Juan's female parent and father are the oldest family members and are becoming more dependent. Juan's mother requires some daily care from Maria. In fact, Maria has the most individual strain of whatever family member in this family unit organisation. Juan and Maria accept each felt a strain on their marriage because of the strains that come from each subsystem and family unit member who depends upon them. They both have in-laws in the house, they both contribute to the care needs of the elderly family members, and they both try to support their son'south basketball games and tournaments. But perhaps most stressful is that there are 3 brand new babies in the firm (encounter Figure iv).

Those new babies have strained the entire family unit arrangement, just extreme strain lands on Maria because Alma is a second year medical pupil and spends long hours in class and training. Anna is extremely overwhelmed by bottle-feedings, diapers, and other hands-on baby care demands. So, Maria is supporting both her daughter and three grandsons, but information technology's overwhelming.

Maria is the Matriarch of this family system. She simultaneously belongs to the following subsystems, Daughter-Female parent; Girl-in-law-Father & Mother-in-law; Spousal; Female parent-Son; Mother-Daughter; Mother-in-constabulary-Son-in-police; and Grandmother-grandchildren. A large number of subsystems in one's life does not automatically imply strain or stress. By looking at the family unit equally a complex organization with inter-locking and interdependent subsystems, solutions tin be found among the members of the organization and subsystems.

This brings upwards the issue of boundaries. Boundaries are distinct emotional, psychological, or physical separateness between individuals, roles, and subsystems in the family. Boundaries are crucial to healthy family functioning.

F AMILY D EVELOPMENTAL T HEORY

Family unit Developmental Theory dates dorsum to the 1930s and has been influenced past sociologists, demographers, and family and consumer scientists, as well as others. Information technology is used to explain patterns of change, the dynamic nature of families, and how change occurs inside the family life cycle. Family Developmental Theory was originally focused on stages of the family life cycle. Co-ordinate to Evelyn Duvall the stages are as follows. Phase 1: Married Couples without Children. Stage 2: Childbearing Families which starts at the birth of the first child and continues until the oldest child is 2½ years onetime. Phase 3: Families with Pre-School Children where the oldest child is 2½ -6 years old. Stage 4: Families with Schoolchildren where the oldest kid is half-dozen-13 years old. Stage v: Families with Teenagers where the oldest child is xiii-xx years old. Stage 6: Families every bit Launching Centers. This starts when the first child leaves home and continues until the concluding kid leaves home. Stage 7: Middle-Age Parents which continues until retirement. Stage viii: Crumbling Families which continues until the decease of one spouse.6

Figure 4. Extended Family Organisation Strain on Maria.

Theorists institute over time that many families did not fit this model. For example many children who had launched had returned to the family domicile, often with children of their own. Newer models of this theory focused more on the roles and relationships inside the family unit. The theory nevertheless focuses on developmental tasks which are the growth responsibilities that arise at certain stages in the life of the family unit. To be successful, family members need to adapt to changing needs and demands and to attend to tasks that are necessary to ensure family survival.

The major assumptions of this theory include the importance of individual development but stress that the evolution of the grouping of interacting individuals is most of import. Developmental processes are inevitable and of import in understanding families. Growth from one stage to another is going to happen. Families and individuals change over a menses of time–they progress through a series of similar developmental stages and face similar transition points and developmental tasks.

To understand the family we must consider the challenges they face in each stage, how well they resolve them, and how well they transition to the next phase. The success or difficulty of achieving the developmental tasks in each stage leads to readiness for the next stage. The major criticism of this theory is its lack of power to business relationship for unlike family forms, and gender, indigenous, and cultural differences. It isn't culturally relevant or sensitive to other life style choices (e.g., childless families).vii

T HE Fifty IFE C OURSE P ERSPECTIVE

The life class perspective is prominent inside the fields of family unit folklore and aging. It is a lens with which to view the age-related transitions that are socially created and are recognized and shared by members of a society. It aids in our understanding of alter among individuals and populations over fourth dimension by looking at the interrelation between individual biography and historical social structures.8

The life course perspective is a theoretical framework that focuses on the timing of events that occur in an individual'due south lifetime. A life course view of marriage is of an ongoing career that occurs inside the context of other life course events.^ix The essential elements of the life class perspective include five themes: i.) multiple time clocks, 2.) social context of development, 3.) dynamic view of process and change, four.) heterogeneity in structures and processes, and 5.) a multidisciplinary view.

The first chemical element is a focus on multiple time clocks or events that impact the individual. These multiple time clocks include ontogenetic, or individual, time which is comprised of personal events, generational time which consists of family transitions or events, and historical time which refers to social events. It is crucial to recognize the importance of the interactions of these time frames, since for instance historical events volition touch individual'due south life trajectories, such as the events of war or economic depression. Changes over historical time, such as the advent of no-fault divorce interact with generational fourth dimension to increase the number of children whose parents divorce, which in turn interacts with private time and may bring most a personal option to divorce.

2nd, the social context of development is also a focus of this perspective. One's location within the broader social structure, the social creation of meanings, cultural context and alter, and the interplay of macro- and micro-levels of development play an of import part in the life grade perspective.

Third, the life course perspective has a dynamic view of process and change. It focuses on the dialectic of continuity and alter in homo development. Age, menstruation, and cohort effects are linked past their interaction with one another link microlevel and macrolevel phenomena. This perspective allows the researcher to disentangle the effects of age, period, and cohort to obtain a more than accurate picture of family unit dynamics. Age effects are an artifact of maturation of individuals while period effects influence the life courses of individuals across birth cohorts. Cohort effects cause a differentiation in life patterns of consecutive birth cohorts.¹⁰

The fourth theme of the life course perspective looks at heterogeneity in structures and processes. It acknowledges diversity across the range of patterns–increasing diversity over time with age at the accomplice and individual level, and variety over time with social alter.

The fifth theme emphasizes the utility of multidisciplinary perspectives on evolution. Development is biological, psychological, and social and all of these perspectives must exist considered when studying human being development.¹¹

The life class perspective is not simply a variation of developmental theories since the latter emphasizes a normative sequence of stages in one'southward life. The life class perspective acknowledges the variance in the possible sequence of events, as well as, the omission of some events, such every bit not having children. This perspective also acknowledges the effect of social and historical events on the individual's life grade (e.g., state of war). Life course scholars likewise are aware of the intra-cohort differences that are influenced past these social and historical events. The life course perspective views wedlock as the uniting of 2 separate life histories which take been influenced by social events of the past and will be influenced by social events of the future.¹²

Southward OCIAL Eastward XCHANGE T HEORY

Social exchange theorists focusing on marital quality and stability have posited that individuals weigh the costs and benefits of mate pick and of remaining in a matrimony. We wait to this theory to explicate why an individual might remain in a dissatisfied marriage. Barriers to change and attractiveness of alternatives are the master elements of social exchange theory when used to guide the investigation of divorce.¹³

In that location are several terms which are cardinal to social exchange theory that must exist divers prior to a give-and-take of the theory. Outcomes are those rewards or costs which are received or incurred by actors from each other in an exchange relationship. Outcomes tin be positive (rewards) or negative (costs) and social exchange theory makes no assumption about whether an individual will view a particular result every bit positive or negative (east.g., some individuals view divorce as positive while others view it equally a negative outcome). The theory simply assumes that behavior is consistent with what individuals value in their lives. Rewards may be physical, social, or psychological. Costs can be viewed as negative or as forgone rewards. Resource are possessions or behavioral capabilities (homo capital) which have value to others and to oneself (due east.chiliad., a husband's chore and income have value to his wife). When one resource outweighs another resources then it may become a barrier (eastward.g., the married woman'southward income may be a resource that enables her to leave the marriage, only her husband's income may be so groovy that it may be a bulwark to leaving since she won't be able to enjoy the life to which she has become accustomed without his income).¹⁴ Barriers are the costs of making a selection.^xv Several studies find when barriers are many and alternatives are few individuals may remain in dissatisfied marriages.¹⁶

Alternatives are the diversity of possible exchange relations available to individuals. An individual'southward alternatives are those opportunities which produce outcomes which have value to the individual. These outcomes may be exchange relationships with other individuals. In the study of divorce, alternatives are to remain married or to divorce. There are costs and rewards associated with alternatives (e.g., the psychological cost of staying in a poor quality marriage, the cost of paying bills on one income associated with divorce) and social exchange theory implies that individuals attempt to weigh rewards and costs when making decisions almost alternatives.¹⁷

Individuals are dependent on each other in an exchange human relationship and the outcomes which are valued past the individuals are contingent on the exchanges made with the other. Exchanges can be one-sided (asymmetrical) or reciprocal.¹⁸ An private may give to some other without receiving anything in return or may receive without giving. Individuals tend to influence each other by considering their partner'south previous choices when making their own choices. Not only is a retention of by costs and rewards used in determining nowadays exchanges, a forecast of futurity costs and rewards is considered as well.¹⁹ When an exchange relationship is imbalanced, the individual who is less dependent volition have the nearly power, or the power reward.²⁰ For case, a woman who has no college instruction and lacks a stable job that provides her with a practiced income is more dependent on her husband, who earns the household income, than he is on her.

Substitution relations accept place over fourth dimension. They are not single transactions. For social commutation relationships to form and be ongoing, the value of the exchange to each of the individuals in the relationship must be greater than the perceived value of the potential alternatives. For example, as long as the value of the marital human relationship is perceived to be greater than the perceived value of divorce, the individuals will remain in the marital relationship. However, in some cases individuals will remain in antagonistic relationships because the alternatives are perceived as fifty-fifty less desirable than the marital relationship (e.one thousand., women in unsatisfying relationships with no instruction, no personal income, and many children to support) or because there is threat of penalty from the spouse (e.one thousand., women in calumniating relationships whose spouses threaten impairment to them or their children if they leave). Social commutation theory acknowledges individuals do not e'er act rationally, merely assumes those departures from rational behavior volition follow predictable patterns.²¹ This theory assumes that humans act rationally when deciding on an commutation; however, this is not e'er true.²²

East COLOGICAL T HEORY

The major assumptions of Ecological Theory are that humans are interdependent with the surround; the whole system and its parts are interdependent and operate in relation to each other; a change in whatever part of the organisation affects the system as a whole and likewise the other parts of the system; all humans are interdependent with the resources of the world; the family is the foremost setting in which development occurs; the family interacts with more i environment; interactions are regulated by the laws of nature and human-derived rules. Figure v shows the model with its systems. It is depicted every bit concentric circles with the person of interest in the center. Each larger circle is a system that is less directly connected to the individual in the center although it does have some influence over the person.

The microsystem is the immediate social settings which an individual is involved in. There is focus on contiguous interactions. Family, school, work, church, and peer groups are typically within the microsystem. The mesosystem links two microsystems together, directly or indirectly. For instance, a 10-year old child is at the center of the model so his family is one of his microsystems and his classroom at school is another microsystem; the interaction is these two is i of his mesosystems. An example of this interaction is a parent-teacher conference.²³

Figure 5. Parts of the Human Ecological Theory Model. ²⁴

The exosystem are settings in which the person does non actively participate but in which significant decisions are made affecting other individuals who do interact directly with the person. Examples of a child'south exosystem would be neighborhood/community structures or parents work environs. The macrosystem is the "blueprints" for defining and organizing the institutional life of the society, including overarching patterns of culture, politics, economy, etc. The chronosystem encompasses change or consistency over fourth dimension in the characteristics of the person and the environment in which the person lives (e.g., changes in family construction, SES, place of residence and customs, society, cultural, and historical changes).²⁵

An instance of how nosotros might view a child of divorce with the Ecological Theory would be that his family configuration has inverse (microsystem); one parent doesn't come to parent-teacher conferences anymore (mesosystem); his mom has to become a full time task and work more hours and be away from him for more hours per day (exosystem); club's views of divorce may make it easy or hard for him to bargain with the divorce (macrosystem); and his SES may take declined, his family structure has inverse, his place of residence may have changed. An Ecological Theorist would starting time his research past investigating these areas of the child'southward life.

F EMINIST F AMILY T HEORY

Feminist theory is a theoretical perspective that is couched primarily in Conflict Theory assumptions, but has added the dimension of sex or gender to the report of society. Feminist theorists focus on the inequality of power between men and women in lodge and in family unit life. The feminist perspective is about choice and about every bit valuing the choices individuals make.²⁶ Feminist theories are a group of theories which focus on four of import themes: recognition of women's oppression; an exam of what contributes to the maintenance of that oppression; a commitment to ending the unjust subordination; a futuristic vision of equality.²⁷

Women'due south subordination appears in works of Plato, who believed that men were more virtuous past nature, and others who believed men had more intellectual and reasoning capabilities. Following the industrial revolution, the women's move emerged in the 19th century. Elizabeth Cady

Stanton established the National Organisation of Women (NOW). Susan B. Anthony was chosen to represent the Suffragists (women who worked for the vote for women) because of her less radical views. By the 1880s there was widespread back up for obtaining the vote. Many believed women deserved the vote due to their maternal virtues while others believed women and men were equal in endowments. Women won the correct to vote in 1920. In the 1960s there was a resurgence of the feminist motion which grew from the movement for the rights of African Americans. This wave of the feminist movement focused on equal pay for equal work, dissatisfaction and depression among American housewives, and power every bit central to the social construction of gender.²⁸

The major assumptions of feminist theories are that women are oppressed; a focus on the centrality, normality, and importance of women's feel; gender is socially constructed; the analyses of gender should include the larger socio-cultural context; and the term "family" supports women'south oppression because it contains course, cultural, and heterosexual biases.²⁹

Liberal feminists believe gender should not be a barrier since men and women are endowed with the same rational and spiritual capacities. They are committed to social and legal reforms that volition create equal opportunities for women, catastrophe sex discrimination, and challenging sexual practice stereotyping.^thirty Social feminists believe women are oppressed by capitalism. Their focus is on redefining capitalism in relation to women's work. Radical feminist theories insist the oppression of women is key. Radical feminists believe the current patriarchal system must be eliminated. Attention is directed towards issues of the body such every bit men's control over women'southward sexuality and reproduction, and men's apply of rape and violence to violate women.³¹

The strengths of feminist theories are that they can be practical to a broad range of issues and they provide valuable critique of other theories and perspectives that lack a focus on gender and ability. These theories are express in that research and practice are often emotionally charged and there tin exist an overemphasis on gender and power.³²

1. Maddox et al. (1987). The Encyclopedia of Aging. New York: Springer.
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutionalisation
3. © 2009 Ron J. Hammond, Ph.D.
4. © 2009 Ron J. Hammond, Ph.D.
5. Prepared by Ron J. Hammond, Ph.D. 2008
6. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Family%20Developmental%20Theory.htm
7. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Family%20Developmental%20Theory.htm
8. Elder & O'Rand. (1995); Hagestad & Neugarten (1985)
9. Esterberg et al. (1994)
10. Elder & O'Rand. (1995)
11. Bengtson & Allen. (1993)
12. Liker & Elder. (1983).
13. Albrecht, Bahr, & Goodman. (1983); Heaton & Albrecht. (1991)
14. Klein & White. (1996); Molm & Cook. (1995)
15. Klein & White. (1996)
16. Levenger. (1976); Thibaut & Kelly. (1959); White & Berth. (1991)
17. Klein & White. (1996); Molm & Cook. (1995); Nye. (1982)
18. Lewis & Spanier. (1979); Molm & Cook. (1995)
19. Lewis & Spanier. (1979)
20. Molm & Cook. (1995)
21. Klein & White. (1996); Molm & Cook (1995)
22. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Social%20Exchange%20Theory.htm
23. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Human%20Ecological%20Theory.htm
24. http://world wide web.sasklearning.gov.sk.ca/branches/psych_portal/images/ecological_model1.jpg
25. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Homo%20Ecological%20Theory.htm
26. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Feminist%20Family%20Theory.htm
27. Avis, 1986
28. http://hhd.csun.^edu/hillwilliams/542/Feminist%20Family%20Theory.htm
29. http://hhd.csun^{. edu /}hillwilliams/542/Feminist%20Family%20Theory.htm
30. Osmond & Thorne, 1993
31. http://hhd.csun^{. edu}/hillwilliams/542/Feminist%20Family%20Theory.htm
32. http://hhd.csun^{. edu/}hillwilliams/542/Feminist%20Family%20Theory.htm

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-marriageandfamily/chapter/1-family-theories/

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